Course Profile Philosophy: Questions and Theories (HZT4U), Grade 12, University Preparation, Catholic
Unit 2: Epistemology – What are Knowledge and Truth?
Time: 30 hours
Activity 2.1 | Activity 2.2 | Activity 2.3
| Activity 2.4 | Activity
2.5 | Activity 2.6
Unit Description
Students identify the main questions, concepts, and theories related to epistemology. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that focuses on questions of knowledge and truth such as: What is the basis of knowledge? What is it to know something? Do we depend entirely on our senses, or can we discover basic truths simply by thinking? How can we justify or prove the truth of what we claim? Is science the only way to know the world?
Students begin with an examination of their own reasons for believing something and why, at certain times, they take on the role of the sceptic. Students then turn their attention to the criteria used in philosophical analysis to address such challenges as those of skepticism and the foundations of knowledge, especially the relationship between truth and rationality. Next, students turn their attention to the responses given by some of the major philosophers, e.g., Plato, Aquinas, Descartes, Berkeley, Locke, Hume, Kant, and schools of epistemology, e.g., scepticism, empiricism, rationalism, scientific method, to these questions. Students then describe instances of how problems of knowledge in everyday life, e.g., conflicting eyewitness claims in court trials, relate to theories of epistemology and other subject areas, such as psychology. The unit culminates with a basic introduction to the epistemology of Bernard Lonergan as found in his book Insight: A Study of Human Understanding—an approach to epistemology relating to knowledge born out of religious experience.
|
Activity/Time |
Learning
Expectations |
Assessment
Categories |
Task |
|
2.1 3.5 hours |
EPV.01, EP1.01, ISV.01, ISV.02, ISV.03, IS3.01, |
Communication |
Headlines poster |
|
2.2 3.5 hours |
EP1.03, |
Thinking/Inquiry |
Group Epistemology Organizer |
|
2.3 10 hours |
EPV.02, EP1.01, EP1.02, EP1.03, IS1.03, IS2.02, |
Knowledge/Understanding |
Unit test |
|
2.4 6 hours |
EPV.03, EPV.04, IS2.02, |
Application |
Group presentations |
|
2.5 2.5 hours |
CGE1i, 2b, 4g |
Knowledge/Understanding Thinking/Inquiry |
Reflection paper |
|
2.6 4.5 hours |
EPV.01, EPV.02, EPV.03, EPV.04, ISV.05 |
Knowledge/Understanding Thinking/Inquiry Communication Application |
Film in Review – A Philosopher’s Column |
Time: 3 hours
Students begin to explore the relationship between knowing and perspective. They begin to articulate their own understanding of what it means to know something and to identify some of the avenues they use to obtain knowledge. Through this exploration, students begin to relate knowledge to truth and to ask such questions as: What is knowledge? How does one evaluate truth? and What are the sources of truth?
Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations
CGE2c - presents information and ideas clearly and honestly and with sensitivity to others;
CGE5e - respects the rights, responsibilities, and contributions of self and others.
Learning Expectations
Strand: Epistemology
EPV.01 - identify the main questions, concepts, and theories of epistemology;
EP1.01 - demonstrate an understanding of the main philosophical questions of epistemology (e.g., What is human knowledge? Can humans know the world as it really is? Are there some things that humans can never know? Are there some things we know with absolute certainty?).
Strand: Research and Inquiry Skills
ISV.01 - correctly use the terminology of philosophy;
ISV.02 - identify the main areas of philosophy, and analyse philosophical arguments within them;
ISV.03 - demonstrate an understanding of the unique character of philosophical questions.
Strand: Using Communication Skills
IS3.01 - clearly explain their own views in philosophical discussions and in other types of exchanges (e.g., electronic, intra- and inter school) with peers.
In Unit 1, students were introduced to critical thinking, logic, and the philosophical nature of the search for truth. They also developed some skills in philosophical argument.
Prepare some sentences that you might use to demonstrate the different meanings of the verb to know. Prepare an overhead that references various headlines on a topic such as the “War Against Terrorism.” Try to have examples of different perspectives. Prepare an overhead that describes various theories of truth, e.g., correspondence theory, coherence theory, and pragmatist theory.
The purpose of the introductory activities is simply to raise questions about knowledge and the nature of truth. It is not to “take sides” in the struggle.
Step One
·
As a class, read
a story/poem that demonstrates how people who experience the same event/reality
can reach different interpretations about what happened.
·
Working
individually or in small groups, students discuss the meaning of the
story/poem. A general discussion ensues followed by efforts to define the verb to
know. The term epistemology is introduced and added to the student’s
list of philosophical terms that are required learning for the course.
Step Two
·
Students are
assigned to work in small groups and to discuss a specific topic relevant to
the life experience and perspective of a 17-year-old, e.g., family, leisure, success,
privacy, entertainment, power, happiness, love.
·
Each group shares
its conversations with the rest of the class. The class then discusses points
of comparison/contrast. Students who have lived in other countries may also
wish to share a different perspective on the various topics under discussion.
·
For next class,
students are assigned the task of finding two articles on a specific topic or
event, one that is supportive and one that questions it.
Step Three
·
In pairs,
students discuss the articles looking for words that sway the reader. The class
then discusses questions such as: “What is the truth about the war? How does a
reader find out “the Truth’’?” How does perspective shape one’s experience?
Students are asked to record questions that they have about the nature of
knowledge and truth.
·
Students are then
assigned the task of creating a “headline” poster that illustrates how words
can be used to influence what people think about an event and how words
influence the reader’s understanding of truth. Pictures may be included as
well. Students prepare an oral summary of poster for class discussion.
·
Students are
assessed for participation in small groups and in class discussions.
·
Through
observation of student performance, the teacher can determine student’s ability
to communicate information and ideas.
·
Headline poster
is assessed for clarity of presentation, creativity, command of various
communication forms and organizational skills.
·
Arrange groups so
that students needing extra assistance work with those who have highly
developed group skills.
In a Grove by Ryunosuke Akutagawa
Feuerverger, Grace. Oasis of Peace: Teaching and Learning Peace in a Jewish-Palestinian Village. Routledge, 2001.
Philosophy Now
Saturday editions of The Globe and Mail, the Toronto Star, The National Post, and local newspapers
Sojourners Magazine – sojourners@sojo.net
The Blind Men and the Elephant by John Godfrey Saxe
The New Internationalist: a magazine developed by press reporters who wanted greater freedom in what they could say about international news
The UTNE Reader
Tennant’s The 5th Wave
Watterson’s Calvin and Hobbes
Wiley’s Non Sequitur
Time: 3 hours
Students examine two major philosophical approaches to epistemology in detail: rationalism and empiricism and others with different approaches in comparison, e.g., chaos theory, scepticism, Kant.
Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations
CGE3c - think reflectively and creatively to evaluate situations and solve problems.
Learning Expectations
Strand - Epistemology
EP1.03 - formulate their own ideas about some of the main questions of epistemology, and explain and defend those ideas in philosophical exchanges with others.
Strand - Research and Inquiry Skills
IS1.03 - apply logical and critical thinking skills to evaluate or defend positions in philosophical writings.
Students need to review the terminology from the previous activity, e.g., knowledge, truth, perspective.
Prepare notes for presentation to students on groups such as the Flat Earth Society and events such as the condemnation of Galileo. Book a TV/VCR for viewing a video such as The Ascent of Man: The Day The Universe Changed. Have a class set of Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” ready for distribution. Develop notes/overheads/electronic presentation on Descartes’ Rationalism and Bacon’s Empiricism. Notes should also be prepared on chaos theory, scepticism, and Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason.
Step One
·
The teacher
introduces the class to a way of thinking that is contrary to the accepted
truth of the day, for example, the Flat Earth Society and why it believes that
the Earth is flat rather than curved.
·
Students are also
introduced to the trial of Galileo and why the Church condemned his beliefs
about the rotation of the earth around the sun. Show the Galileo episode from
either The Ascent of Man video series or The Day The Universe Changed
video series and ask students to record reasons why the Church objected to
Galileo’s thinking.
·
A general class
discussion, facilitated by the teacher, should ensue. The teacher should ensure
that through the discussion students continue to examine such questions as What
is the source of knowledge? and What roles do reason and experience play in the
search for knowledge?
Step Two
·
Students read
Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.” (Republic 7: 514-517) Students discuss
such issues as the various types of knowledge referred to by Plato, the
limitations of knowledge and the role that different views of knowledge play in
conflict amongst groups.
Step Three
·
After the
discussion, students take/record notes on Descartes’ theory of rationalism,
i.e., innate ideas exist and it is possible to establish important truths about
the world by reason alone, unaided by sense-experience. Students continue to
take/record notes on Bacon’s theory of empiricism, i.e., it is through
experience that people learn the truth, and all knowledge of the world rests on
sense-experience. Students are then introduced to several theories of
epistemology that are neither rationalist or empiricist in their approach, such
as chaos theory, i.e., events and actions have unpredictable results,
scepticism, i.e., the view that human beings either do not or cannot attain
knowledge, and Kant’s resolution of scepticism. In groups (four to six),
students discuss why they prefer one epistemological approach over another. The
group then develops an organizer/chart of the various theories of epistemology
using their notes. Each student in the group uses one of the theories to
explain how it connects to Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.”
·
Students are
assessed for critical and creative thinking skills and contributions to class
discussions through informal observation.
·
Notebooks are
checked by the teacher to verify that proper notes have been taken by each
student.
·
The teacher
formally assesses the group’s ability to analyse and evaluate information used
in the organizer/chart and the conclusions presented by each student.
·
Students who need
help in note taking may be assisted by another student who makes a carbon copy
or notes may be provided.
·
Students who
would benefit from taping formal presentations on Descartes and Bacon may be
allowed this option.
·
Teacher provides
note-taking outline with categories already in place to help students organize
notes.
Hunter Brown. ed. Images of the Human. Chicago: Loyola Press, 1995, p. 167-9.
Plato. The Republic. Canada: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1980, p. 207-11.
Richard H. Popkin and Avrum Stroll. Philosophy Made Simple. Doubleday, 1993.
Robert Paul Wolff. About Philosophy. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1995.
Websites
Chaos Theory – www.wfu.edu/~petrejh4/HISTORYchaos.htm
The Flat Earth Society – www.alaska.net/~clund/e_djublonskof.FlatHome.htm
Galileo – www.2lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/library/96feb/galileo.html
Videos
The Ascent of Man
The Day The Universe Changed
Time: 10 hours
Students examine selected texts, both ancient and modern, which exemplify a variety of epistemological questions and theories. Texts include not only examples of an idealist/rationalist approach to knowledge, e.g., Plato’s Phaedo and Descartes’ Meditations 1 and 2, and realist/empirical epistemologies, e.g., Aristotle, Aquinas, or the British tradition of Locke and Hume, but also philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, who attempted to overcome this polarity with a unique blend of empiricism and rationalism known as transcendental idealism. Students evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of responses given by some of the major philosophers and major schools of philosophy to some of the main epistemological questions.
Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations
CGE2b - reads, understands, and uses written materials effectively;
CGE7g - respects and understands the history, cultural heritage, and pluralism of today’s contemporary society.
Learning Expectations
Strand - Epistemology
EPV.02 - evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the responses to some of the main questions of epistemology defended by some major philosophers and schools of philosophy, and defend their own response;
EP1.02 - evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the responses given by some of the major philosophers (e.g., Aquinas, Plato, Descartes, Berkeley, Nagarjuna) and major schools of epistemology (e.g., skepticism, empiricism, pragmatism) to some of the main epistemological questions (e.g., Is human knowledge based entirely on sensory perception? What counts as a justification in claiming to know something?), making reference to classic texts (e.g., Plato’s Meno, Descartes Discourse on Method).
Strand - Using Reasoning Skills
IS1.03 - apply logical and critical thinking skills to evaluate or defend positions in philosophical writings.
In Unit 1 (Metaphysics), students were introduced to a number of theories on the nature of being that are intimately connected to questions of epistemology. The previous activities provided an introduction to the main questions associated with different approaches to epistemology. Teachers must review before proceeding.
This activity can be
organized in one of two ways:
1. The first is through the use of selected readings from a textbook, if one is being used, e.g., Philosophy: A Text with Readings, 6th Edition by Manuel Velasquez, Philosophical Traditions: A Text With Readings by Louis P. Pojman. The readings can be divided into three sections: philosophers who support a rationalist and a priori view of knowledge, e.g., Plato, St. Augustine, Leibniz; philosophers who support an empiricist and a posteriori view of knowledge, e.g., Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Russell; and thinkers who attempt to overcome this polarity, e.g., Kant, Damasio. Non-western sources should also be used where appropriate, e.g., Buddhist theories of enlightenment.
OR
2. A second organizing principle could be derived from the ‘perspective of participation’ outlined in Eric Voegelin’s “The Symbolization of Order” in Order and History Vol. 1. Israel and Revelation. Voegelin refers to a community of being that is interdependent and includes self, others, the world and God. Readings are selected that address the question of how we come to know self, others, the world, and God. A wide variety of excerpts from various philosophers and literary figures can be used to answer questions such as: How do we know the self? (Pascal’s Pensees; Kierkegaard’s Sickness Unto Death; Kingwell’s Better Living; Percy’s Lost in the Cosmos: The Last Self-Help Book; Damasio’s The Feeling of What Happens); How do we know others? (Buber’s I and Thou; Sartre’s No Exit; Berger and Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality; Berman’s Coming to Our Senses; Nussbaum’s Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions); If knowledge of self and other is embedded in the natural world, how do we know it? (Heidegger’s Being and Time; Abram’s The Spell of the Sensuous; Roszak’s The Voice of the Earth); and finally, How do we know God? (Maritain’s Approaches to God; Kung’s Does God Exist; John-Paul II’s Fides et Ratio)
Step One
·
Students are
divided into three sections, with two groups in each section. Each section is
provided with a selection of readings/excerpts and a video presentation—one
from philosophers who support a rationalist view of knowledge, one from those
who support an empiricist view, and a third that offers alternatives to these
two major schools of epistemology. This third group should include several
readings from non-Western thinkers.
·
Each group reads
the assigned material and answers the following questions: According to these
philosophers, what is the basis of knowledge?
1. What counts as a justification in claiming to know something?
2. What would you consider the strength of this view of knowledge?
3. What would you consider its weakness?
Step Two
·
Students in each
group are assigned the roles of facilitator, recorder, and presenters. Each
group presents its responses to the three questions to the whole class using an
organizer as a presentation tool, e.g., chart paper, overhead, board notes.
Step Three
·
Students choose
to sit on one of two teams. Team 1 supports the belief that reason is the
source of knowledge. Team 2 believes that all knowledge comes from experience.
When called upon by the teacher, team members defend their beliefs in
philosophical exchange with others.
Step One
·
Students are
divided into four sections, with two groups in each section. Each section is
provided with a selection of readings/excerpts—one set from philosophers who
strive to answer the question: How do we know the “self?”; one set that
responds to the question; How do we know others?; one from philosophers who
strive to answer the question: How is knowledge of self and others embedded in
the natural world?; and one that responds to the question: How do we know God?
·
Each group reads
the assigned material and answers the assigned questions.
·
According to
these philosophers, how do we come to know self/others/the world/God?
Step Two
·
Students in each
group are assigned the roles of facilitator, recorder, and presenters. Each
group presents its findings to the class using an organizer as a presentation
tool, e.g., chart paper, overhead, board notes, power point presentation.
·
Teacher
facilitates a discussion whereby students either identify or create the
interdependency of the four epistemological foci.
·
Peer assessment
of student contributions to group activity, e.g., clarity of presentation,
accuracy of information, correct use of philosophical terms and references.
·
Formal test
(multiple-choice/short essay answers) on the concepts, principles, and theories
of the various philosophers’ viewpoints on epistemology
·
Students who
experience reading difficulties may require appropriate summaries of the
readings prepared by the teacher or secondary source summaries such as those
found in Sophie’s World by Jostein Gaarder
Pojman, Louis P. Philosophical Traditions: A Text with Readings
Warburton, Nigel ed. Philosophy: Basic Readings
Velasquez, Manuel. Philosophy – A Text with Readings
Videos
The Examined Life - #12: Is Reason The Source of Knowledge
#13: Does All Knowledge Come From Experience
#14: Does The Mind Shape The World?
Time: 6 hours
Students apply epistemological theories and questions to everyday life and to other disciplines. Relevant areas might include law, morality, religion, politics, media, science, visual arts, literature and psychology.
Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations
CGE4g - examines and reflects on one’s personal values, abilities and aspirations influencing life’s choices and opportunities;
CGE7b - accepts accountability for one’s own actions.
Learning Expectations
Strand: Epistemology
EPV.03 - demonstrate the relevance of philosophical theories of epistemology to concrete problems in everyday life;
EPV.04 - explain how different epistemological theories apply to subject areas such as psychology;
EP1.04 - describe instances in which philosophical problems of knowledge occur in everyday contexts (e.g., conflicting eye witness claims in court trials), and can be clarified and analysed using philosophical theories of epistemology;
EP1.05 - explain how theories of knowledge (e.g., realism) are adopted and applied in subject areas such as psychology (e.g., the psychology of perception).
Strand: Using Research Skills
ISI2.02 - compare the problems, principles, methods, and conclusions of different philosophers (e.g., how Aristotle made use of Plato’s theory of forms, how Kant replied to Hume’s skepticism);
ISI2.03 - describe the ways in which the ideas of philosophers have influenced subsequent philosophers.
Students need to review the terms and concepts used in the study of epistemological theory and be familiar with the features of various schools of philosophy such as empiricism and rationalism, as well as alternative schools of epistemology.
This activity provides students with ample opportunity to use their research skills. Time should be given for students to use the Internet and library resources where appropriate. A topics list could be provided for each area of exploration to help focus student research, e.g., in science, students need to research what is meant by the scientific method, scientism, and paradigm shift.
Step One
·
This activity
lends itself to co-operative learning. Students form groups of four or five and
select one of the eight areas for exploration.
· Law, e.g., evidence, reasonable doubt, inference, belief
· Morality, e.g., sources of moral judgment, certainty, limits of tolerance
· Religion, e.g., truth and verification, belief and proof, reason and revelation
· Politics, e.g., distinguishing between truth and propaganda, credibility of politicians, becoming an informed citizen
· Media, e.g., truth in advertising, manipulation of news, ownership of mass media
· Science, e.g., truth in science, scientism, paradigm shifts
· Visual arts, e.g., meaning of artworks, objective criteria for judging art
· Psychology, e.g., mind-body dualism, behaviourism, problem of perception
Step Two
·
Groups research
and collect data on selected area and discuss connections between theories of
epistemology and the topic focus.
Step Three
·
Students create a
mind map, which demonstrates the application of their research to the topic
area. The mind map is recorded on chart paper and presented to the class.
·
Teacher visits
each group while students are discussing their topics to ensure that all
students understand the task.
·
Peer assessment
for participation and clarity of presentation as to how theories of knowledge
are adopted and applied in other subject areas.
·
Groups present
their findings to whole class; teacher evaluates individual student
achievement.
·
Websites may be
provided to assist students with their research
Solomon, Robert C. The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy
Stevenson, Jay. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Philosophy
Videos
The Examined Life - #15: How Does Science Know?
#16: Does Science Give Us Truth?
Websites
http://philosophy.about.com
http://www.erraticimpact.com
http://arts.anu.eduau/philosophy/videodata/
www.earlham.edu/~peters/philinks.htm
Time: 2.5 hours
This activity is designed to introduce students to the Catholic philosophical tradition through the work of Bernard Lonergan, SJ (1904-1984). Lonergan perceived that Catholic theology was in need of a massive update, while yet maintaining continuity with the past. His effort to do so is found in the major work of his career, namely Insight—a book in which he asks and answers two questions: What is happening when we are knowing? What is known when that is happening? Lonergan’s answers provide the basis for an epistemology, a metaphysics, an ethics and a theology.
Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations
CGE1i - integrates faith with life;
CGE2b - reads, understands, and uses written materials effectively;
CGE4g - examines and reflects on one’s personal values, abilities, and aspirations influencing life’s choices and opportunities.
Learning Expectations
Strand: Using Research Skills
IS2.03 - describe ways in which the ideas of philosophers have influenced subsequent philosophers;
IS3.01 - clearly explain their own views in philosophical discussions in class and in other types of exchanges (e.g., electronic, intra- and interschool) with peers;
IS3.02 - clearly explain their views and display their use of philosophical reasoning skills in written papers, using accepted forms of documentation as required.
·
Students are
familiar with the information and skills addressed in Activities 2:1 through
2:4
·
Prepare an
overhead/PowerPoint presentation that provides the main details of
Lonergan’s life.
Step One
·
The teacher
provides students with an introduction to the life of Bernard Lonergan, e.g.,
as found in Dictionary of Modern Western Theology.
Step Two
·
The teacher
provides notes on Lonergan’s approach to epistemology.
·
Students are
assigned a reading based on the work of Lonergan that explores the challenges
of adolescence, e.g., Tad Dunne’s Being a Teenager, found on website
www.utoronto.ca/lri
·
Students are
assigned the task of reading the essay and writing a response to the main
points of the article in their journals. A general class discussion facilitated
by the teacher should ensue. Then students write new journal entries to
demonstrate whether class discussion changes their response.
·
Evaluation by the
teacher of the journal entries.
Lonergan, Bernard. Insight: A Study of Human Understanding. London: Longmans Green, 1957.
Tepkippe, Terry. What Is Lonergan Up to in Insight? Collegeville, Minnesota: Michael Glazier Press, 1996.
Carley, Moira. Essay on Bernard Lonergan and the Catholic Teacher in The Philosophy of Catholic Education. Caroline DiGiovanni, ed. Ottawa; Novalis, 1992.
Website
The Lonergan Institute – www.utoronto.ca/lri
Time: 4.5 hours
The unit culminating activity is a film review for a philosophy magazine (e.g., Philosophy Now) that critically analysing a film that contains epistemological themes, e.g., Blow-Up, The Seventh Seal, Rashomon, Memento, Waking Life, Sundays and Cybele, The Matrix, Romero. Students approach the review from the perspective of a particular philosophical epistemology and identify how the film embodies/expresses this school’s approach toward knowledge and truth. This activity may be utilized as part of the course culminating activity.
Learning Expectations
Strand: Epistemology
EPV.01 - identify the main questions, concepts, and theories of epistemology;
EPV.02 - evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of responses to some of the main questions of epistemology defended by some major philosophers and schools of philosophy, and defend their own responses;
EPV.03 - demonstrate the relevance of philosophical theories of epistemology to concrete problems in everyday life;
EPV.04 - explain how different epistemological theories apply to subject areas such as psychology.
Strand: Research and Inquiry skills
ISV.05 - effectively communicate the results of their inquiries.
This
activity requires access to a commercial film. See the note in Overview
Resources concerning this.
· Review the expectations of the assignment with the students
· A discussion of the elements of the rubric to be used in the evaluation would be appropriate.
· Use the rubric provided (Appendix 1).
|
Criteria |
Level 1 |
Level 2 |
Level 3 |
Level 4 |
|
Knowledge/ Understanding EPV.01 EP1.01 |
- review shows limited knowledge of terms, concepts, etc. |
- review shows some understanding of theories and ideas |
- review shows considerable understanding of theories and concepts |
- review shows thorough grasp of main theories and concepts |
|
Thinking/Inquiry EP1.04 |
- limited evidence of understanding epistemology in the film |
- some evidence of epistemology as expressed in the film |
- clear evidence of understanding epistemological concepts in film |
- extensive evidence of understanding epistemological currents in the film |
|
Communication IS3.01 EPV.03 |
- limited clarity in expressing ideas |
- some clear ideas communicated in review |
- good grasp of effective ways to express ideas |
- excellent use of language to convey ideas |
|
Application EP1.02 EP1.04 |
- limited clear logic linking film to epistemology |
- some good insights into film’s expression of epistemological theories |
- considerable strength in linking film and epistemological ideas |
- exceptional insight into epistemological concepts as expressed in film |
Note: A student whose achievement is below Level 1 (50%) has not met the expectations for this assignment or activity.
Overview
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